Male hegemony & Misogyny: A Systematic Cycle of Power and Oppression

Writer: Aya Hamdan

Editors: Mazal Leviyev and Keila Cruz

Introduction

  Despite decades of progress towards gender equality, male dominance remains deeply ingrained in societal structures, perpetuating gender bias, discrimination, and violence against women. Male hegemony refers to the power historically granted to men, which has been misused throughout history and continues to shape modern society. This misuse often manifests in and reinforces misogynistic behaviors such as oppression and violence of women worldwide. More than a mere social construct; male hegemony is a powerful systematic force based on societal norms and individual psychology. Widespread gender bias results in the underrepresentation of women and  limits women’s opportunities while perpetuating misogyny, thus influencing societal attitudes, behaviors, and personal identity. 

Theoretical Framework: Hegemonic Masculinity and Misogyny

Hegemonic masculinity is the configuration of gender practices that embody the elevated form of masculinity and serve to legitimize the dominant position of men and the subordination of women. The premise that hegemonic masculinity is fundamentally a reification of power or toxicity that has been challenged from a variety of angles. Holter (1997, 2003), a prominent critic of the latter view, contends that the ideology of masculine dominance is centered on women’s direct experiences of gender inequality rather than the structural foundation of women’s subordination, and he argues this overlooks an important component of comprehending the term hierarchy. While Godelier (1981) posits that male dominance is not a product of individual relationships but a historical and structural force that has been ingrained in societies for centuries. He notes, “the domination of men over women is not the first, but it is the most constant and universal form of domination that human societies have known” (Godelier, 1981, p. 3). This perspective supports Holter’s claim that patriarchy is a long-standing system, it is more than just  a cultural or social phenomenon. Holter further distinguishes between “patriarchy”, a long standing system of female subordination, and “gender,” a system that emerged within modern capitalism. Holter asserts that limiting the hierarchy of masculinities to a simple gender construct undermines the complexities of these power dynamics. Hegemonic masculinity differs from mere gender division in that it not only maintains male dominance, but also actively marginalizes and derogates women, which is the predominant basis of misogyny. 

Manne (2017) challenges the belief that misogyny stems from men’s internal attitudes and is merely not a matter of the psychology of individuals. It is in fact a matter of the social norms, expectations and consequences that oppress the lives of women and girls under a system of patriarchal despotism. According to Manne, the main purpose of misogynistic actions and behaviors are to penalize women who fail to conform to patriarchal standards and expectations. These norms dictate that women are supposed to provide men with traditionally feminine acts such as submission, deference, care, empathy, and attention. When women refuse to provide these behaviors or instead ask for masculine attributes such as status or power, they face punishment with subtle or overt hostility, with societal forces set to reassert their inferior position.  This ongoing policing of gender norms can cause severe psychological suffering, including heightened anxiety, lower self-esteem, and internalized misogyny, as women navigate the tension between personal autonomy and cultural expectations (Bosson et al., 2021; Rudman et al., 2012). 

Literary Representations of Misogyny: A Thousand Splendid Suns

Khaled Hosseini’s A Thousand Splendid Suns functions as a gripping literary examination of the destructive consequences of institutionalized misogyny and male hegemony. Hosseini illustrates how Afghan society, especially under the Taliban, limits women’s autonomy and legitimizes male domination through the lives of Mariam and Laila. Rasheed embodies male hegemony in its most violent form. His demands of female silence and submission serve as a foundation for his domination over both Mariam and Laila. Rasheed’s love swiftly devolves into violence when Mariam was unable to give birth to a son, demonstrating how a woman's value is based on their capacity to carry out patriarchal duties. He deprives her of visibility and agency by starving her, beating her, and making her wear a burqa, which he says is for her protection. The burqa turns into a symbolic representation of enforced invisibility both literally and metaphorically. 

Hosseini depicts the psychological and emotional effects of male dominance in addition to physical abuse. The violence escalates when Rasheed takes Laila as his second wife. She is punished in spite of her efforts to assert herself. When Mariam was a child, she was cautioned by her mother who told her “Learn this now and learn it well. Like a compass facing north, a man’s accusing finger always finds a woman. Always. You remember that, Mariam.” This sentence exemplifies the social reality that women are continuously held accountable for men’s aggression, which is a fundamental aspect of misogyny according to Manne. Just how Mariam was treated in the most derogatory and reductionist way for being unable to provide Rasheed with a child, which urged him to take Laila as a second wife in which he valued and praised her more for her beauty and existence. 

Hosseini also emphasized how maternal roles which are often seen as sacred, are also mediated by male dominance. When Rasheed insisted that their child must be a boy, Laila notes, “But the game involves only male to names. Because, if it's a girl, Laila has already named her.” In this case, the preference of a son is a reflection of institutional and societal misogyny, which diminishes the worth of women and upholds the patriarchal legacy. A Thousand Splendid Suns, the title itself, evokes a sense of perseverance and lost beauty. Afghan women’s hidden brilliance is evoked by the quote, “One could not count the moons that shimmer on her roofs, or the thousand splendid suns that hide behind her walls.” Their strength is not recognized and is not visible because of societal barriers. By transforming their misery into a tale of perseverance and resistance, Hosseini demonstrates how women can unite and fight back against systemic tyranny. 

                        The Subordination of Women in Global Context

Before we proceed, we must define the subordination of women. It is a social reality with three branches: economic, political, and symbolic. At the economic level, it is enough to look around to notice that women do not have equal access to the same occupations as men, they never advance as far in any given occupation. Politically, women account for less than 10% of National Assembly delegates in France, despite representing slightly more than half of the population. Symbolically, the mass media constantly portrays men as active, dominant subjects while women are depicted as passive and subordinate objects, perpetuating traditional gender hierarchies. 

In this context, we should mention Irene Levine’s account of an experiment that was conducted in the United States. A group of American students were shown babies of both sexes, first dressed as girls and then boys, and asked to comment on their behavior. When one baby cried, the following kind of comment was made: if it was dressed as a boy, its crying was seen as a sign of infantile rage, indicating that the boy is acting on the world; if it was dressed as a girl, the crying was considered a sign that something was wrong, implying that it was winning. These symbolic representations continue to testify to and reinforce male dominance across societies (Godelier, 1981). 

Misogyny exists not only as an individual mindset, but also a tool of social control that maintains patriarchal power dynamics. Misogyny ensures that women remain subordinate to men in many aspects of life by punishing women who defy societal expectations of femininity. This is apparent in workplace discrimination, where women who assert authority face backlash. Women in leadership positions may be undermined with biased evaluations or limited opportunities. Misogynistic behavior can take extreme forms, such as domestic violence and sexual harassment, which are harsh punishments for women who challenge male dominance (Manne, 2017). These forms of punishment contribute to the perpetuation of patriarchal control by limiting women’s autonomy and reinforcing their subordinate role (Walby, 1990). A woman’s psychological health may suffer over time as a result of these systemic tendencies, which may result in elevated stress, anxiety, sadness, and self doubt. A woman's capacity to succeed both personally and professionally may be limited if she internalizes societal perceptions, which can also undermine her feeling of agency and self-worth. 

Resistance and Challenges to Male Hegemony

While supremacist ideologies of male dominance are deeply entrenched within our society, resistance to these oppressive systems has persisted for generations. Feminist movements, legal reform, and change in cultural narrative have challenged the institutionalized oppression of women. Women have fought for and won fundamental rights such as suffrage, education, and workplace protections in the last century. However, these achievements haven’t  eradicated misogyny, which persists in our society in more subtle and systemic ways. 

The first-wave feminist movement during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries aimed to secure legal rights such as voting and property ownership. The second wave during the 1960s and 1970s expanded its agenda to include reproductive rights, discrimination in the workplace, and domestic violence (Hooks, 2000). Most recently, third wave and intersectional feminism have centered on the intersecting nature of the oppression of women based on race, class, and sexual orientation. Power relationships have also been changed by legal reforms. Laws prohibiting gender discrimination in the labor force, such as the Equal Pay Act of 1963 and Title IX in the US, aimed at providing equal opportunities to women. In addition, international treaties such as the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) have pushed governments into implementing policies of gender equality (Walby, 1990). Despite such progress, the implementation of such laws is uneven and systemic biases persist. 

Economic Independence and Education

Women’s empowerment through education and economic independence is one of the best ways to end male dominance. Higher levels of economic engagement and more decision-making authority for women have been associated with access to education (Connell, 2000). Despite advancements, obstacles still stand in the way of women’s access to higher education. And career progression, especially in traditionally male dominated professions like politics and STEM related fields. Systemic reforms are essential to address these discrepancies, such as equal pay programs, accessible childcare, and regulations that encourage parental leave. 

Conclusion

To conclude, male hegemony and misogyny are still firmly ingrained in society due to historical, political, and cultural factors. A Thousand Splendid Suns shows us how these forces operate on both intimate and institutional levels. This oppression is contextualized by feminist theory as structural and deliberate rather than incidental. Gender equality requires ongoing efforts to remove patriarchy at all levels; systemic, cultural, and psychological despite opposition and achievements. As feminist scholars emphasize, policy alone won’t bring about long-lasting changes, we also need to change the stories we tell, the power we share, and the future we decide to build.